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- Galen a Greek, born in modern day Turkey and serving the Roman Emperor in the 2nd C CE is often recognised as the most accomplished Physician of antiquity.
- In the 9th & 10th C the Muslim world saved the Greek texts from obscurity, absorbed their ideas, and through scientific endeavour improved the body of medical knowledge.
- Foremost was 9th C Al-Razi who developed the scientific method to determine efficacy, set up modern style hospitals – not seen in Europe till 17th C. In 1395 his medical encyclopaedia was one of only 9 books in use in the Medical Faculty in Paris.
- 11th C Ibn Sina was a polymath and another medical giant whose text books were in use in many European Universities up to the 17th C.
- In Medieval times the Christian West viewed illness either as divine punishment for sins, or as possession by evil spirits. Cures relied on magic and religious intervention.
- Theriac, an anti-venom medicine, documented by Galen, was adopted and re formulated by the Muslims and Chinese. When the Black Plague hit in mid 14th C it was reformulated again in multiple cities across Europe. Some formulations contained viper & opium and despite the fact none of them worked they were heavily marketed as cure-alls, up until the 18th C – probably leading to the term Snake Oil.